The Scientist-Conqueror

Despite military challenges, Napoleon threw himself into Egyptian administration and exploration. He founded the Institut d'Égypte, reformed the tax system, and introduced printing presses. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone by French soldiers would eventually unlock hieroglyphics, though this triumph came long after Napoleon's departure.

His proclamations showed remarkable cultural flexibility, presenting himself as a defender of Islam against Mamluk corruption. He attended religious ceremonies, quoted the Quran, and even suggested his army might convert. This religious pragmatism—cynical or visionary depending on perspective—prefigured his later Concordat with the Catholic Church.

The Syrian campaign (February-May 1799) shattered Napoleonic invincibility. Seeking to pre-empt Ottoman attacks, Napoleon marched into Palestine. The siege of Acre, defended by Ottoman forces aided by British naval officer Sidney Smith, proved a costly failure. Plague struck the French army, leading to one of Napoleon's most controversial decisions—the mercy killing of French plague victims too sick to travel, though he vigorously denied this later.